Bøger udgivet af Hayle Medical

Immunity refers to the ability of a body to defend itself against disease causing organisms. The immune system can be categorized into innate immune system and adaptive immune system. The innate immune system is an evolutionary defense system, which is a principal immune system response identified in insects, plants, primitive multicellular organisms and fungi. Its primary functions include activating the adaptive immune system with the help of antigen presentation, and recruiting immune cells to infection sites by generating chemical factors and chemical mediators such as cytokines. The adaptive immune system refers to a subsystem of the immune system, consisting of systematic processes and cells, which eliminate and inhibit pathogen growth. It has both cell-mediated and humoral immunity components, which help in destroying the invading pathogens. This book is a vital tool for all researching and studying the molecular aspects of innate and adaptive immunity. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book provides significant information to help develop a good understanding of innate and adaptive immunity.

An autoimmune disease refers to a type of medical condition caused by an abnormal immune response to a healthy body part. The most common types of autoimmune diseases include rheumatoid arthritis (RA), multiple sclerosis, celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), myasthenia gravis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Majority of the autoimmune diseases share similar signs and symptoms, such as sore muscles, low-grade fever, skin rashes and exhaustion. There are many risk factors associated with autoimmune diseases, such as family history, obesity, smoking and exposure to pollutants. Autoimmune diseases can be diagnosed by performing some blood tests, such as the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), antinuclear antibody test (ANA) and complete blood count (CBC). Treatment of these diseases is determined by the nature and severity of the condition. Immunosuppressants and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) are frequently utilized for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. This book elucidates the innovative models around prospective developments with respect to autoimmune diseases. It is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the diagnosis, pathophysiology and treatment of these diseases. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers studying these diseases.

HIV is a virus that severely affects the immune system resulting in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The treatment of HIV involves combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). This therapy suppresses HIV-1 replication, blocks transmission, and improves immune responses. cART is a lifelong treatment, and does not eliminate the virus while also having side effects. The focus in the treatment of HIV is the reactivation of HIV reservoirs for subsequent termination by viral cytopathic effects or host immunity. The most researched HIV reservoir is resting memory CD4+ T cells in peripheral blood and lymphoid tissues. The antiretroviral therapies have expanded significantly in the recent times and comprise five categories of antiretrovirals, including nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), protease inhibitors, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) and entry inhibitors. This book unfolds the innovative aspects of HIV research which will be crucial for the progress of this field in the future. For someone with an interest and eye for detail, this book covers the most significant topics on HIV-AIDS and its treatment.

Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) comprise various conditions, which are caused by infection from the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This virus usually spreads through unprotected sexual activity, blood transfusions, hypodermic needles, and from mother to child. There is no danger of acquiring HIV from feces, nasal secretions, saliva, sputum, perspiration, tears, urine, or vomit uncontaminated with blood. When the virus is acquired, it replicates inside and destroys T helper cells, which are necessary for all adaptive immune responses. There is an initial period of influenza-like illness in this disease. The treatment of HIV infection is determined by the stage of the disease. The treatment aims to keep the immune system from deteriorating to the point where opportunistic infections are more likely. Patients with weak immune systems are also less prone to immune reconstitution syndrome. The primary treatment of HIV includes highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), which decreases the growth of the disease. This book explores all the important aspects of HIV and AIDS in the present day scenario. Also included herein is a detailed explanation of the various diagnostic and management techniques associated with this medical condition. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information on this disease as well as for experts.

Hemostasis is a physiological process in the body that helps in stopping the bleeding and starting the repair process. This process prevents excessive blood loss and infections in the body. The formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, which obstructs the blood flow through the circulatory system is referred to as thrombosis. It can be categorized into venous thrombosis and arterial thrombosis. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) refers to blood clots that start in the veins. Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism are the two sub-categories of VTE. Some common symptoms of thrombosis include sudden change in mental state, swelling in leg or arm, weakness in one side of the body, and chest pain. Diagnosis of thrombosis is performed through tests such as ventilation-perfusion scans, computed tomography (CT) scan, venography, and ultrasound. Anticoagulants such as heparin are the most effective medications used for the treatment of thrombosis. This book outlines the symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of thrombosis and hemostasis in detail. It consists of contributions made by international experts. The book is appropriate for students as well as for experts seeking detailed information in the area of hematology.

Patient safety refers to a discipline that focuses on safety in health care by reporting, preventing, analyzing and mitigating errors and other types of unwanted harm that might result in adverse patient events. It is critical for providing high-quality vital healthcare services. Effective communication plays a crucial role in ensuring safety in healthcare. The provision of secure, effective and person-centered health care services requires the health services to be equitable, efficient and prompt. Leadership ability, qualified and skilled healthcare workers, clear policies, effective patient involvement, and data to support safety improvements are required for the successful implementation of patient safety methods. This book explores all the important aspects of patient safety and healthcare improvement in the present day scenario. From theories to research to practical applications, studies related to all contemporary topics of relevance to this area of medicine have been included herein. Students and experts actively engaged in patient safety and healthcare will find it full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

Lactation is a process of milk secretion by the mammary glands in female mammals including humans. Breastfeeding refers to the action of feeding milk from the breast of a lactating female to a young child or a new born baby. Breastfeeding is helpful in reducing risk of several diseases including type-1 diabetes, asthma, childhood leukemia, allergies and obesity. Benefits of breastfeeding for the mother in the long term include reduced risk of rheumatoid arthritis, breast cancer, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. Some of the common problems associated with lactation include sore nipples, breast engorgement, too little or too much breast milk, and mastitis. This book on breastfeeding presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. It will also provide interesting topics for research which interested readers can take up. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Smart healthcare makes use of the new generation of information technologies to change the conventional medical system in a comprehensive manner, and make the healthcare more personalized, convenient and efficient. It is responsible for accessing information, connecting institutions, materials and people, which are linked in healthcare systems. It is also engaged in managing and responding to the requirements of the medical ecosystem in a smart manner. There are various applications of smart healthcare, including prevention and risk monitoring of diseases, drug research, assistance in the treatment and diagnosis of diseases, providing virtual assistants and playing an important role in developing smart hospitals. Some of the current challenges in smart healthcare include a lack of programmatic documents and macro guidance that results in non-achievement of the desired goals and eventually leads to the wastage of resources. This book aims to understand the challenges, directions and future predictions of smart healthcare. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by it.

Hepatitis C refers to a type of viral infection that causes damage and inflammation in the liver. It is caused by the hepatitis C virus. The virus spreads through the body fluids or blood of an infected person. There are various stages of hepatitis C such as the incubation period, acute hepatitis C, chronic hepatitis C, cirrhosis and liver cancer. The signs and symptoms of infection include yellow discoloration of the eyes and skin, fatigue, dark-colored urine, weight loss, loss of appetite, and itchy skin. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test and antibody test are typically used to diagnose hepatitis C. There is no vaccine available to protect against infection from the hepatitis C virus. However, the majority of cases of chronic and acute hepatitis C can be treated with direct-acting antiviral medications (DAAs). This book contains a detailed explanation of the symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of hepatitis C. It aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of this disease. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers up-to-date with the global concepts in this medical condition.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) refers to the building up of extreme fat in the liver without any clear cause like alcohol use. NAFLD is categorized into two types that include non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which also involves liver inflammation, and non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL). Non-alcoholic fatty liver is less risky when compared to NASH. Typically, it does not develop to the stage of liver cirrhosis or NASH. However, when NAFL reaches the stage of NASH, it ultimately causes severe problems including cardiovascular disease, liver failure, liver cancer and cirrhosis. The risk factors associated with NAFLD are unbalanced lifestyle, genetics, improper diet, obesity and type 2 diabetes. Liver biopsy, blood tests and imaging are some of the techniques that can be used to diagnose NAFLD. Its treatment involves weight loss which can be achieved through exercise and dietary changes. This book contains some path-breaking studies on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. It aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of this disease. This book will help new researchers by foregrounding their knowledge in this medical condition.

Glucose is the primary source of energy in body. Hypoglycemia is a condition which occurs when the blood sugar (glucose) level falls lower than normal. It can cause headaches, fatigue, clumsiness, difficulty in speaking, disorientation, a racing heart, sweating, shakiness, nervousness, hunger, loss of consciousness, seizures, or death. Medications used to treat diabetes, such as insulin, sulfonylureas, and biguanides, are the most common cause of hypoglycemia. People with diabetes who have eaten less than usual, exercised recently, or have consumed alcohol are at higher risk for this medical condition. Medical problems like sepsis, kidney failure, liver disease, hormone insufficiency, malignancies such as insulinomas or non-B cell tumours, inborn metabolic abnormalities, numerous drugs, and alcohol can all lead to hypoglycemia. This book presents new insights into the causes and consequences of hypoglycemia. It consists of contributions made by international experts. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Metabolism refers to a range of chemical processes that occur when the body converts the food consumed by a person into energy. A metabolic disorder occurs when abnormal chemical reactions disrupt the metabolism of the body. Genetics, mitochondrial dysfunction, and organ dysfunction are some of its common causes. There are various kinds of metabolic disorders including Gaucher's disease, diabetes, hemochromatosis, phenylketonuria, and mitochondrial disorders. Some common symptoms of these disorders include reduced appetite, stomach pain, muscle weakness, tiredness, changes in skin color, unexpected weight gain or loss, and developmental problems in babies and infants. Metabolic syndrome comprises a group of five medical conditions which can lead to various health problems such as diabetes, heart disease and stroke. These conditions are high blood glucose, high levels of triglycerides in the blood, large waist circumference, low levels of HDL cholesterol and high blood pressure. The topics covered in this book offer the readers new insights into metabolic dysfunction. It includes contributions of experts and scientists, which will provide innovative insights into these disorders. The book will greatly assist the researchers and students associated with the diagnosis and management of metabolic dysfunction.

Autophagy is a process in which cells capture their own cytoplasm and organelles and consume them in lysosomes. This mechanism preserves the health of cells and tissues through the replacement of damaged and outdated cellular components with new ones. The breakdown products serve as inputs to cellular metabolism. Autophagy prevents degenerative diseases as it is a powerful promoter of metabolic homeostasis at both the cellular and whole animal level. It reduces ubiquitinated protein accumulation in the brain, and disposes-off the aggregation-prone proteins and damaged organelles that cause Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease. The metabolic syndrome refers to a group of medical conditions which increase the likelihood of heart disease, diabetes and stroke. It encompasses high blood sugar, hypertension, high cholesterol levels and excess fat around the waist. The process of autophagy has an effect on the development of metabolic syndrome since the metabolic syndrome is caused due to the accumulation of damaged cellular constituents. This book includes some of the vital pieces of works being conducted across the world, on various topics related to autophagy and metabolic syndrome. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of medicine as well as for experts.

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) refers to a type of contagious respiratory disease caused through the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The virus is transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person through droplets released while sneezing, coughing and speaking. The practice of dentistry has been seriously impacted by the COVID-19 outbreak, majorly due to the generation of large amounts of droplets and aerosols combined with the patient's blood or saliva during dental procedures. Dental professionals are at a high risk since SARS-CoV-2 has been found in the saliva of infected people. There is a high risk of cross infection between patients and dental health care personnel (DHCP) because of the characteristics of dental environments. Thus, it is likely to trigger changes in the delivery of dental care in the future, such as changes in layout and workflow of dental clinics. This book provides comprehensive insights on the impact of Covid-19 on dentistry. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information on oral health impacts, management and future preparedness regarding this virus in the field of dentistry. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Biomedical imaging is a field that deals with capturing the images of the internal organs of the body for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. It helps create informative images of the organs and structures of the body for clinical purposes. Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technology has demonstrated enormous potential in biomedical imaging applications due to its outstanding advantages such as miniaturization, high speed, higher resolution, and convenience of batch fabrication. Emerging technologies in biomedical imaging include artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR), and cinematic rendering and digital twin technology. AI can be used to guide the radiologists on positioning the machine and preparing the optimum settings for the scan. These settings can be based on age, gender, area or disease of focus. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of biomedical imaging, focusing on the emerging technologies and applications. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this field.

Vitamin C refers to a water-soluble vitamin that is found in citrus and other vegetables and fruits. It is helpful in treating and preventing scurvy. Vitamin C is an essential nutrient required for the enzymatic production of some neurotransmitters, repairing tissues and in the production of collagen. It is also essential for the functioning of numerous enzymes, and plays a significant role in immune system function. Vitamin C also works as a type of antioxidant. Several animals are capable of synthesizing their own vitamin C. However, monkeys and apes including humans, some rodents, most bats, and some other animals must obtain it from nutritional sources. There are several diseases which can be caused due to lack of vitamin C such as cardiovascular diseases, COVID-19, iron deficiency and several infections. This book provides comprehensive insights on the effects and mechanisms of action of Vitamin C in human health and disease. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers engaged in the researches on this vitamin.

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and a network of blood vessels. It is primarily involved in the distribution of nutrients and blood throughout the body, and the transportation of deoxygenated blood back to the lungs. Numerical simulation tools, mathematical models and algorithms can be used for the investigation of the human cardiovascular system. The mathematical and numerical modeling of the cardiovascular system encompasses the development of mathematical and computational models along with their efficient numerical solution, in-vivo and in-vitro validation, and filtering the data. It also involves identifying the parameters of mathematical models, devising optimal treatments and accounting for uncertainties. This book provides comprehensive insights on the mathematical modeling and numerical simulation of the human cardiovascular system. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers up-to-date with the global concepts in this area of study. This book aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of the discipline.

Cardiac arrhythmias are conditions that involve irregularities in the heart beat. It can be generally classified based on the speed of the heart rate as tachycardia and bradycardia. Tachycardia is a condition in which the heart beats more than 100 times per minute. There are several types of tachycardia such as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, supraventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation, and ventricular tachycardia. Bradycardia involves a heart rate less than 60 beats per minute. It can be categorized into sick sinus syndrome and conduction block. Some common symptoms of cardiac arrhythmia are chest pain, palpitations, anxiety, etc. Clinical management of cardiac arrhythmias includes different types of medications and invasive therapies. Electrical cardioversion is a type of treatment in which an electrical impulse is conveyed through the chest wall. It is used to synchronize the heart and allow the normal rhythm to restart. This book provides significant information of cardiac arrhythmias to help develop a good understanding of their mechanism and clinical management. It is a vital tool for all researching and studying these medical conditions.

Pain refers to a type of distressing sensation that is frequently triggered by strong or harmful stimuli. It is the primary sign of a variety of illnesses, wounds and infections. It may also be caused from treatments for ailments and disorders. Chronic pain and acute pain are the two primary categories of pain. The techniques for decreasing and regulating the amount of pain a person experiences over a long period of time is referred to as pain management. Various forms of pain can be managed using a variety of methods. Complementary therapies, pain medications and physical therapy are a few pain management strategies. The majority of pain management methods aim to enhance a person's coping strategies or lessen chronic pain. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to pain management. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of medicine as well as for experts.

Arteriogenesis is the increase in the diameter of arterial vessels. The process of development of arteries is supplemented by the migration of pericytes and smooth muscle cells (SMCs) from the epicardium. Majority of the SMCs of the coronary artery stem from the epicardium, however, SMCs of proximal coronary arteries originate from the neural chest. In terms of mechanical simulation, arteriogenesis is associated with elevated pressure which intensifies the stress on the radial wall, and elevates the flow which then intensifies the stress on endothelial surface. The diameter is increased by the vessel until the normalization of the stress. In terms of chemical simulation arteriogenesis is associated with upregulation of cell adhesion and cytokines receptors. The book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of arteriogenesis and the recent researches in this area of study. It will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

The area of medicine which specializes in the management of pain during the perioperative period is known as anesthesiology. It includes the use of various inhaled and injected medications to cause the loss of sensations in patients, for carrying out those procedures that would otherwise cause unbearable pain. Modern anesthesiology also includes providing pre-hospital emergency medicine, running intensive care units, and transportation of critically ill patients. It is also used in prehabilitation programs to ensure the successful surgery of patients. Anesthesiology procedures require knowledge of various areas including the pharmacology of inhalational anesthetics, topical anesthetics and vasopressors. It also involves electrocardiography, electroencephalography and electromyography. The topics included in this book on anesthesiology are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. This book will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Urology, also known as genitourinary surgery, is a study of the diseases related to the urinary-tract system. It also involves the study of the disorders associated with the male reproductive organs. The organs which come under the scope of urology include the bladder, kidneys, urethra, ureters, prostate, seminal vesicles, vas deferens, epididymis, adrenal glands, testes and penis. Some of the sub-disciplines of this field are endourology, neurourology, reconstructive urology, urologic oncology and female urology. Endourology is a subfield within urology which involves the application of minimally invasive techniques for examining the urinary tract and performing surgery. Neurourology focuses on urinary tract dysfunction which is caused by neuropathy disorders. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the field of clinical urology. It brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of this field of medicine. As this field is emerging at a fast pace, this book will help the readers to better understand the upcoming concepts in urology.

Addiction is defined as the inability to stop utilizing a substance or engaging in an activity despite the fact that doing so is harmful to the physical and mental health of a person. Exhaustion, declining physical health and irritation are all common signs of addiction. Addiction medicine is a specialized branch of medicine primarily concerned with the evaluation, diagnosis, recovery, prevention and treatment of addiction related disorders. Substance-related and addictive disorders and people who exhibit unhealthy use of substances like prescription drugs, nicotine, alcohol and other illicit and licit drugs are all treated under this area of medical science. Addiction medicine involves the study of drug cravings from different perspectives such as brain states, regional, small-scale networks, and large-scale networks. It also encompasses craving management through cognitive, behavioral, psychosocial, environmental and neural perspectives. This book provides significant information to help develop a good understanding of addiction medicine, its neuroscientific approaches and therapeutical implications. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

Neurorehabilitation refers to a type of medical procedure that helps in the recovery from injuries to the nervous system and neurological conditions. It can be used to treat progressive neurological conditions such as tumors, Parkinson's disease and dementia. Neurorehabilitation assists patients in rapid recovery and maximizing their functional and cognitive capacities after the acute stage of brain injury treatment is over. Therapeutic treatments, remediation treatments, psycho-education, cognitive treatments and compensatory treatments are some of the treatment options used in the neurorehabilitation process. New technological advancements in this field have resulted in the development of improved imaging techniques which enables better assessment. Video games and virtual reality are also seen as potential options for promoting cerebral development and rehabilitation. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to neurorehabilitation. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Human milk is considered to be the optimum food for newborn nutrition. It is widely acknowledged as the ideal food for almost all infants due to its proven health advantages for both children and their mothers. It has particularly significant health advantages for preterm infants. Human milk is a very complex composite liquid of nutrients for newborn growth that is predominantly composed of proteins, fats and carbohydrates as well as vitamins, minerals and other nutrients. The fat in human milk promotes the development of baby's neurologic tissues and brain which is crucial for premature infants. This book aims to shed light on the role of human milk for preterm infants. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Kidneys are the two bean-shaped organs and each kidney is approximately the size of a fist. They filter unnecessary water and waste from the blood and produce urine. Kidney disease refers to the impairment of kidneys where the kidneys are damaged to an extent where they are incapable of filtering blood efficiently. The cells of the kidneys can be damaged due to ischemic, immunological and toxic complaints, which cause organ dysfunction and failure in certain cases. Acute kidney injury is a prevalent occurrence that is linked to negative renal and patient outcomes. The human kidneys have a limited capacity for regeneration. The immune system plays a significant role in the regeneration capacity of the kidneys, as it first promotes inflammation and then promotes tissues healing. This book explores all the important aspects of kidney diseases in the present day scenario. It provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. With state-of-the-art inputs by acclaimed experts of nephrology, this book targets students and professionals.

Bacteriophages or phages are the viruses that infect bacterial cells. They replicate within these bacteria. Bacteriophages can be categorized on the basis of their morphological characteristics, nucleic acid content, site where they are usually found, and the bacterial target. Phage therapy is a specialized application of bacteriophages used for treatments wherein bacterial infections are treated using bacteriophages. The genomes of bacteriophage are used to encode highly pathogenic bacterial toxins including cholera toxin in Vibrio cholerae and diphtheria toxin in Corynebacterium diphtheria. Despite its benefits, there are some risks associated with phage therapy. For instance, it may lead to development of antibiotic resistance and reduced activity due to immune system response. This book contains some path-breaking studies on bacteriophage biology. The various advancements in bacteriophage research have been glanced at and their applications as well as ramifications have been analyzed in detail. The book will serve as a valuable source of reference for the graduate and postgraduate students.

Foamy viruses, also known as spumaviruses, are complex retroviruses which make up a subfamily of Retroviridae family. This class of viruses can naturally infect a variety of animals including non-human primates (NHPs). Spumaretroviruses are unique and unconventional with respect to many aspects of molecular biology such as assembly and release of enveloped viral particles. There are three major proteins that are encoded within the retroviral genome, namely, group antigens (Gag), envelope protein (Env), and reverse transcriptase (Pol). Both Gag and Env as components of the minimal assembly and the release machinery display substantial variations in their molecular structures and functions compared to other retroviruses. Some of the distinct features of spumaretroviruses, which are not found in other retroviruses, are genome coding strategy, sequence features, mode and timing of Gag polyprotein processing, and packaging and activation of the Pol gene-associated enzymatic functions. This book provides a comprehensive overview of all aspects of the microbiology and immunology of foamy viruses. Researchers and students in the field of medical microbiology will be greatly assisted by it.

The neuromuscular system or the peripheral nervous system consists of the motor nerves and sensory nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. The set of disorders that affect the neuromuscular system are called neuromuscular diseases. Neuromuscular medicine is a specialized field of medicine that draws from neurology and physiatry, and it focuses on the diagnosis and management of neuromuscular diseases. The predominant sign of these diseases is progressive muscle weakness. Some common neuromuscular disorders are amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, myasthenia gravis, and spinal muscular atrophy. Various diagnostic tools and tests such as nerve and muscle biopsies, electromyography, nerve conduction studies, and molecular and genetic tests are used to determine neuromuscular disorders. Genetic testing or DNA testing is a diagnostic method used to identify changes in the DNA sequence or the chromosome structure. This book presents various developments in the field of neuromuscular medicine that are aimed at improving neuromuscular health and treating neuromuscular diseases. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers up-to-date with the global concepts in this area of study.

Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline, which aims to create fully operational biological systems from the smallest constituent particles possible such as DNA, proteins, and other organic molecules. It incorporates many different scientific techniques and approaches in molecular biology, genetics, RNA engineering, and omics technologies. These technologies have transformed the ability to reveal the biology of the cell and the molecular basis of the disease. Synthetic biology makes use of the process of DNA sequencing to determine the order of nucleotide bases in a DNA molecule. It can also be applied in the field of medicine for drug screening and discovery. This book outlines the unique aspects of synthetic biology, the molecular mechanisms used in this field and its role in the treatment of diseases. It includes contributions of experts and scientists, which will provide innovative insights into this field. Researchers and students in the field of synthetic biology will be greatly assisted by this book.