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The disease that affects the joints in the body is referred to as osteoarthritis. It is the most common chronic condition of the joints. It is characterized by the breakdown of the cartilage, thus causing pain, swelling and limited mobility. The joints on one side of the body are usually more affected. Osteoarthritis can be classified into spondylosis, trapeziometacarpal osteoarthritis, knee osteoarthritis, hip osteoarthritis and wrist osteoarthritis. It may be caused due to a combination of mechanical stress on the joint and inflammatory processes. Its diagnosis is based on the presentation of signs and symptoms alone, and in some cases it is guided by X-ray results. The treatment of osteoarthritis includes pain medications, weight loss, exercise and resting. In extreme instances of pain which deters normal activities, joint replacement surgery is considered a viable treatment. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide an in-depth case-based approach to the study of osteoarthritis. It strives to provide a fair idea about the diagnosis and management of osteoarthritis. With state-of-the-art inputs by acclaimed experts of orthopedics, this book targets students and professionals.

Nursing is a health care professional sector concerned with the care of individuals, families, and communities so that they can achieve, recover and maintain quality of life and optimal health. It aims to ensure care for all patients and maintain their credentials, code of ethics, standards, and competencies. Some of the primary branches of nursing are cardiac nursing, perioperative nursing, orthopedic nursing, obstetrical nursing, palliative care, etc. Nursing has the widest range of all healthcare professions. It is divided depending on the needs of the person being nursed. The major populations in nursing are adult-gerontology, paediatrics, neonatal, informatics. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of nursing. It traces the progress of this field and highlights some of its key concepts and applications. This book is an essential guide for both academicians and those who wish to pursue this discipline further.

Pharmacology is the branch of biomedical science that deals with the discovery, research and characterization of chemicals that show biological effects. It is concerned with the explanation of cellular and organismal functions in relation to these chemicals. It examines the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect both normal and abnormal biochemical functions. It also includes drug composition, synthesis and drug design, cellular communication, molecular diagnostic, therapy, chemical biology and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. There are two main branches of pharmacology - pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. Pharmacodynamics studies the chemicals with biological receptors and pharmacokinetics studies absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of chemicals from the biological systems. This book presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. It will also provide interesting topics for research which interested readers can take up. Students, researchers, experts and all associated with pharmaceutical science will benefit alike from this book.

Total knee arthroplasty or total knee replacement surgery is a procedure that is performed in a severely damaged knee joint to restore function and relieve pain. It involves replacing the damaged bone and cartilage from the kneecap, shinbone and thighbone with an artificial joint. The assessment of whether knee arthroplasty is required for a particular condition is determined by assessing the range of motion, strength and stability of the knee. X-ray imaging can offer visual insights to determine the extent of damage. The most common condition that causes knee pain and disability is osteoarthritis. The rate of complication post-surgery is generally low. Most people who have undergone total knee arthroplasty experience a good quality of life, substantial reduction in pain and better mobility. Different approaches, evaluations, methodologies and advanced studies on total knee arthroplasty have been included in this book. Some of the diverse topics covered in this book address the varied techniques and procedures of total knee arthroplasty. This book is a vital tool for all researching or studying orthopedic surgery as it gives incredible insights into emerging trends and concepts.

The surgery of the heart or the great vessels, performed to correct congenital heart disease or treat valvular disease or complications arising due to ischemic heart disease, is termed as cardiac surgery. The scope of cardiac surgery is wide. The surgery that is performed on the heart after a large incision to the chest to open the rib cage is called an open-heart surgery. Depending on the procedure, it may entail the opening of the heart itself. A modern development in cardiology is the procedure of beating-heart surgery, in which the heart continues to beat even during the surgery. Coronary artery bypass grafting is performed with the objective of preventing clot formation, and subsequent heart attack. As opposed to the highly invasive open-heart surgery, minimally invasive surgery requires smaller incisions and can be robot-assisted. Another important area of cardiac surgery is heart transplantation. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of cardiac surgery. The aim of this book is to present researches that have transformed such surgical techniques and aided their advancement. For someone with an interest and eye for detail, this book covers the most significant topics in this field.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the heart rhythm which is characterized by rapid or irregular beating of the atria. It may start as short periods of abnormal beating that become long or constant over time. Occasionally, it may present symptoms such as heart palpitations, light-headedness, chest pain, shortness of breath, or fainting. The diagnostic evaluation involves a review of medical history and a physical examination, in combination with a complete blood count, ECG, serum thyroid stimulating hormone level and transthoracic echocardiogram. The management of atrial fibrillation is aimed at the prevention of circulatory instability and stroke. Rhythm control or rate control, and in some cases cardioversion are used to achieve circulatory stability. Anticoagulants are generally prescribed to reduce the chances of stroke. This book contains some path-breaking studies in atrial fibrillation. Also included herein is a detailed explanation of the clinical diagnosis and management strategies for atrial fibrillation. This book is meant for students who are looking for an elaborate reference text on cardiology.

Atherosclerosis is a clinical condition characterized by the narrowing of an artery due to the build-up of plaque. The arterial narrowing limits the flow of oxygen and blood to different parts of the body. The disease does not usually show symptoms at the outset, but starts exhibiting signs around middle age. Several factors can play a contributing role to the development of atherosclerosis, such as high blood pressure, obesity, high cholesterol, smoking, diabetes, etc. It can be prevented by following a healthy diet, refraining from smoking, exercising regularly and maintaining a normal weight. By conducting a physical examination, and performing exercise stress tests and electrocardiograms, this condition can be diagnosed. Its management typically consists of medications for lowering cholesterol such as blood pressure medication, statins and drugs that decrease clotting. Various procedures can also effectively treat this condition, such as coronary artery bypass graft, percutaneous coronary intervention or carotid endarterectomy. The topics included in this book on atherosclerosis are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe on the risks, mechanisms and management of atherosclerosis. This book is an essential guide for both academicians and those who wish to study this disease further.

Cardiac imaging is a non-invasive imaging technique used for the diagnosis of a heart condition. The use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) and nuclear medicine imaging allows the visualization of the heart. Transthoracic echocardiography is the most common imaging tool that allows the non-invasive evaluation of heart function and the blood flow through the heart. It applies ultrasonic waves to examine the heart chambers and blood movement. Using multidetector CT, cardiac images can be obtained in a matter of few seconds, which are reconstructed using algorithms. Such CT techniques have facilitated the diagnosis of cardiac artery disease in a non-invasive way. MRI allows soft tissues to be differentiated and permits the quantitative assessment of morphology, size, function and tissue characteristics. Constant research in these techniques will help to ensure better cardiac imaging for the diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of cardiac imaging. The topics included herein are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers up-to-date with the global concepts in this area of study.

Urology is a field of medical science which deals with the diseases of the male and female urinary tract. The disorders of the bladder, male reproductive organs, prostate and the urethra are treated in this medical discipline. This includes the management of bladder stones, congenital disorders, erectile dysfunction, incontinence, tumors and cancers, infertility, sterilization, etc. Various techniques of urologic imaging are used for the visualization of the urinary tract. These include antegrade pyelography, cystography, cystourethrography, intravenous pyelogram, radioisotope renography, etc. The treatment of many urologic disorders can be achieved with minimally invasive techniques such as key-hole surgery and endoscopic procedures. Some disorders may require open surgery, such as removal of kidney, bladder or prostate for treating cancer, bladder construction after removal, vasectomy, etc. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the field of urology. From theories to research to practical applications, case studies related to all contemporary topics of relevance to this field have been included in this book. It will help new researchers by foregrounding their knowledge in this field.

Urology is a medical specialty which is involved in the diagnosis and treatment of the diseases and disorders of the urinary tract and the male reproductive organs. Urology encompasses the management of both medical and surgical conditions. Medical conditions that can be treated non-surgically include benign prostatic hyperplasia and urinary-tract infections. Surgical interventions are needed for the treatment of prostate cancer, kidney stones, bladder cancer, traumatic injury, congenital abnormalities and stress incontinence. Some of the subspecialties of this domain are endourology, urogynecology, pediatric urology, transplant urology, androurology, sexual medicine, etc. Circumcision, male genital surgery and male genital modification are certain procedures of male genitalia. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the field of urology. Its objective is to give a general view of the different urological conditions and their treatment strategies. In this book, using case studies and examples, constant effort has been made to make the understanding of the difficult concepts of urology as easy and informative as possible, for the readers.

The urinary bladder is a hollow elastic muscular organ that sits on the pelvic floor. The urine excreted by the kidneys collects in the bladder before expulsion from the body. The bladder can be affected by urinary bladder inflammation like cystitis, bladder obstruction and bladder rupture. Cystitis, also known as urinary tract infection, is caused by a bacterial infection and is fairly common. Bladder obstruction or tamponade results due to a blood clot forming near the outlet of the bladder. Bladder rupture may occur if the bladder is overfilled and not emptied. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around the diagnosis and treatment of bladder diseases. The topics included herein on bladder diseases are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. In this book, using case studies and examples, constant effort has been made to make the understanding of the difficult concepts as easy and informative as possible, for the readers.

Nephrology is a field of medicine which is concerned with the evaluation of kidney function, diagnosis and treatment of kidney diseases, and preservation of kidney health. The kidneys can be affected by a host of pathological conditions such as kidney diseases and systemic conditions. Kidney diseases can also cause various systemic diseases, like renal osteodystrophy and hypertension. Kidney diseases include chronic kidney disease, acute kidney injury, nephritic and nephrotic syndromes, and pyelonephritis. The chemical and microscopic analysis of the urine, kidney biopsy and CT scan, and measurement of kidney function through serum creatinine tests are common techniques of diagnosing kidney diseases. Kidney transplantation or dialysis may be required to treat kidney failure, while in cases of renal carcinoma, nephrectomy may be performed. The various studies that are constantly contributing towards advancing technologies and evolution of nephrology are examined in detail in this book. Its objective is to give a general view of the different types of kidney diseases, and their diagnosis and treatment. This book includes contributions of experts and scientists which will provide innovative insights into this field.

The field of urological surgery deals with kidney structure abnormalities and urinary tract defects. The management of cancers, kidney stones, ureteral stones, renal cysts and urinary tract obstruction is under the scope of this field. Modern urological surgery involves a wide use of technology. Minimally invasive surgical procedures, such as laser-assisted surgeries, as well as laparoscopic and robotic surgeries are performed with the aid of fiber-optic endoscopic equipment, real-time ultrasound guidance and lasers. The field of transplant surgery, which deals with the transplantation of ureters, kidneys, bladder tissue and penis, is an important area of urological surgery. This book elucidates new procedures of urological surgery in a comprehensive manner. It strives to provide a fair idea about urological disorders and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within urology. As this field is emerging at a rapid pace, the contents of this book will help the readers understand the modern concepts and applications of the subject.

Sexual health and function are important for a healthy life. The male reproductive system is responsible for the production, maintenance and transportation of sperms and semen, the discharge of sperm during sex, and for the production and secretion of male sex hormones. Male reproductive health depends on male hormones. The primary hormones involved are testosterone, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. Testosterone is important for the development of male characteristics, such as muscle mass and strength, facial hair growth, sex drive, fat distribution, bone mass, etc. Follicle-stimulating hormone is involved in spermatogenesis, while luteinizing hormone stimulates testosterone production. The field of andrology deals with the anomalies and disorders of the male genitalia, and encompasses the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions. The objective of this book is to give a general view of the different areas of clinical andrology. It aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of male reproductive health and the recent researches in this domain. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

The understanding of the male reproductive system, its physiology and pathophysiology is vital to addressing the various issues related to male sexual health. The clinical discipline of andrology involves a holistic study of the disorders of the male reproductive system and other pathologies, including the common issue of infertility. Infertility in men is an extremely common medical problem and a major cause of childlessness. It can arise due to genetic abnormalities, cancer, endocrine disorders, as well as a consequence of various medical procedures. The management of sexual dysfunction, prostatic disease, penile disease and genital tract cancer are also under the scope of andrology. Certain procedures are helpful in the diagnostic process, such as vasography, digital rectal examination, collection of sperm, surgical exploration of the genital tract, biopsy, etc. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of andrology. The topics covered in this extensive book deal with andrological conditions, and their therapeutic interventions. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in andrology.

Inflammatory bowel disease refers to diseases which involve the chronic inflammation of the digestive tract. There are primarily two types of inflammatory bowel diseases, namely, ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Ulcerative colitis involves long-lasting inflammation in the innermost lining of the large intestine. Crohn's disease is characterized by the inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract. Some of the symptoms which accompany these diseases are severe diarrhea, weight loss, fatigue and abdominal pain. It is caused by immune malfunction. An abnormal immune response can lead to the immune system attacking the cells in the digestive tract. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of inflammatory bowel disease. It elucidates the concepts and innovative models around therapeutic interventions with respect to this disease. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) describes a set of conditions in which the intestines become inflamed. Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease are the two main types of IBD. The symptoms range from mild to severe and depend on the part of the intestinal tract involved. Abdominal cramps, diarrhea, iron deficiency anemia, weight loss, etc. are some common symptoms. In diagnosing IBD, it is imperative to first develop a differential diagnosis. Several conditions exhibit symptoms similar to Crohn's disease or colitis, such as irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal tuberculosis, Behçet's disease, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug enteropathy, etc. No specific disease marker is yet known which enables a clear distinction between Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Only through observation of the location and nature of the inflammation can a diagnosis be established. The management of IBD depends on the disease severity, type and extent. Immunosuppressive drugs, anti-inflammatory drugs, steroids and biological therapy for IBD are certain medical strategies for controlling the disease. Research is also being undertaken to explore the role of stem cell therapy in treating IBD. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of inflammatory bowel disease. It includes contributions of experts and scientists which will provide innovative insights into the diagnosis and management of IBD. It is a collective contribution of a renowned group of international experts.

Colitis is an inflammatory disease of the colon. It may be an acute and self-limited condition, or a long-term condition. Colitis can be of various kinds such as ulcerative colitis, lymphocytic colitis, collagenous colitis, ischemic colitis, etc. The symptoms of colitis depend on the underlying cause of the disease, its stage and severity. These may include recurring bloody diarrhea, mild to severe abdominal pain, abdominal tenderness, flatulence, poor appetite, fatigue, etc. Severe symptoms such as irregular or fast heartbeat, fever and shortness of breath may also occur. When viewed using colonoscopy, ulcers, colonic mucosal erythema and bleeding may be observed. A review of the patient's medical history, physical examination and laboratory tests such as CBC, stool culture, stool ova, etc. are performed to diagnose colitis. Medical imaging and imaging of the rectum also help in making such diagnoses. The cause and extent of bowel damage due to colitis can be determined through a biopsy. Medications generally prescribed to treat colitis include immunosuppressant or anti-inflammatory drugs. This book contains some path-breaking studies in colitis. Also included herein is a detailed explanation of the various symptoms of colitis, and their management strategies. This book is meant for students who are looking for an elaborate reference text on colitis.

The inflammatory bowel disease affecting any part of the gastrointestinal tract is referred to as Crohn's disease. It is believed to arise due to a combination of several genetic, immune, environmental and bacterial factors. In this condition, the immune system of the body attacks the gastrointestinal tract. Crohn's disease can occur in men and women of any age group but typically sets in between 15 and 30 years of age. Affected people may experience Crohn's related symptoms for years before the diagnosis. They may have recurring periods of remission and flare-ups. Abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloating, flatulence, nausea, vomiting, etc. can occur in affected people. Many systemic symptoms such as growth failure in children and weight loss in adults may also be seen. The diagnosis of Crohn's disease is considered challenging and requires a number of tests for a diagnosis to be established. Several medications, lifestyle changes and dietary regimes, activity and exercise seek to control its relapse. This book presents a diagnostic and therapeutic approach to the study of Crohn's disease. It includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to this condition. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

The hormone insulin, which is produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets, regulates carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism. When glucose generated due to the digestion of carbohydrate is released into the bloodstream, insulin is produced by the body. Under conditions of normal insulin reactivity, glucose is absorbed by the cells. When cells have an inhibited response to this hormone, a pathological condition known as insulin resistance occurs. Under this, excess blood sugar is not absorbed by the cells and results in symptoms such as polyphagia, polydipsia and polyuria. This is believed to occur due to a high intake of carbohydrates, mainly fructose. The diagnosis of insulin resistance is generally done by evaluating fasting insulin levels, glucose tolerance testing, hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp and modified insulin suppression test. Often a low carbohydrate diet and fasting helps in reversing insulin resistance. This book unravels the recent studies related to insulin resistance. It provides significant information of this condition to help develop a good understanding of its diagnosis and management. This book includes contributions of experts and scientists which will provide innovative insights into this metabolic condition.

The field of hepatology encompasses the study of the liver, pancreas, gallbladder and biliary tree, as well as their disorders and management. The scope of hepatology is wide, from investigating conditions as varied as drug overdose, fever with features suggestive of a hepatological anomaly, the management of jaundice/hepatitis, advanced liver disease, systemic diseases of the liver and biliary tree, and cancer. The most common conditions dealt with are viral hepatitis and alcohol related liver pathologies. The Hepatitis B virus infects nearly two billion people across the globe and up to 350 million people are persistent carriers. Nearly 80% of all cases of liver cancers may be attributed to hepatitis B or C virus. Excessive alcohol consumption has been linked with the high incidence of cirrhosis. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and transhepatic pancreato-cholangiography (TPC) are two important diagnostic tools for the diagnosis of hepatic diseases. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of hepatologic studies. Also included in this book is a detailed explanation of the various diagnostic tools and treatment procedures in hepatology. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Liver fibrosis is a pathological condition of the liver that occurs due to chronic damage to the liver along with the accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins. These proteins act to form a fibrous scar. Such liver injury is caused due to chronic hepatitis C virus infection, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and alcohol abuse. Besides these, hepatitis B infection, primary sclerosis, primary biliary cirrhosis and cholangitis may also contribute to liver fibrosis. With time, as the liver becomes more scarred, a condition known as cirrhosis sets in. The progression of fibrosis is usually stealthy with minor symptoms, such as appetite loss, fluid buildup in legs or stomach, nausea, jaundice, etc. This progression from fibrosis to cirrhosis can take close to 15-20 years and is largely determined by both genetic and environmental factors. Various complications such as renal failure, ascites, hepatic encephalopathy and variceal bleeding may occur. It is usually detected at an advanced stage. The underlying cause of the fibrosis can be usually treated. Different antifibrotics may be prescribed to reduce scarring. In its advanced stage, the only treatment modality available is a liver transplantation. This book covers in detail the clinical perspectives in the pathophysiology and development of liver fibrosis. Different approaches, evaluations, methodologies and advanced studies on liver fibrosis and cirrhosis have been included herein. It is a collective contribution of a renowned group of international experts.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that significantly affects the motor system. A set of symptoms known as Parkinsonism, including tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia and postural instability are commonly exhibited. Non-motor symptoms such as behavioral and thinking problems also occur in individuals with this disease. Parkinson's disease is a prevalent disorder, affecting nearly 1% of the world's population above the age of 60. Several theories pertaining to the cause of PD suggest the death of dopamine-producing neurons in the central nervous system, due to oxidative stress. Such oxidative stress is attributed to metabolism and the production and accumulation of free radicals. Drugs like levodopa and dopamine agonists can moderate the symptoms of the disease. However, these medications become ineffective when multiple dopamine-producing cells have been destroyed. Research is being undertaken to investigate the link between dietary patterns and Parkinson's. The potential of stem cell transplantation, gene therapy and neuroprotective agents in the management of PD is also being explored. This book unravels the recent studies in Parkinson's disease. It brings forth the fundamental as well as modern approaches of its management. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of this disease.

Insulin resistance is a set of signs and symptoms that occur due to inhibited insulin activity. It is a subset of a larger group of symptoms called the insulin resistance syndrome. The condition leads to high circulating levels of insulin, and stimulates the formation of new fatty tissues, thus accelerating weight gain and leading to obesity. Insulin resistance is also associated with insulin resistance syndrome or metabolic syndrome. Insulin resistance syndrome refers to an aggregate of five known medical conditions- high blood sugar, central obesity, high blood pressure, high serum triglycerides and low serum high-density lipoprotein. It is generally considered a risk factor for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The nature of the development of this syndrome is still an area of active medical research. It often affects older obese adults having a degree of insulin resistance and leading a sedentary life. Whether insulin resistance or obesity triggers metabolic syndrome or if they are consequences of a complex metabolic derangement is a subject of study. Each disorder manifested in metabolic syndrome is treated separately. Hypertension is treated using ACE inhibitors and diuretics, and cholesterol drugs are prescribed to manage abnormal levels of triglycerides and LDL/HDL cholesterol. Restricting the intake of carbohydrate in food is recommended for the management of both insulin resistance and insulin resistance syndrome. The topics included in this book on insulin resistance and insulin resistance syndrome are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers.

Melanoma is a form of cancer which develops from melanocytes or pigment-containing cells. It occurs in the skin, mouth, intestines or the eyes. It may develop due to ultraviolet light exposure or from a mole with irregular edges, size and skin breakdown. It can be prevented by avoiding exposure to UV light and by using sunscreen. Melanoma can be categorized as lentigo maligna, superficial spreading melanoma, nodular melanoma, desmoplastic melanoma, etc. It is the most critical form of skin cancer. It can be diagnosed based on a visual examination, dermatoscopic examination and a biopsy. The complete surgical excision of the melanoma with acceptable surgical margins and followups for assessing the presence of detectable metastatic disease is a standard procedure. Chemotherapy drugs are prescribed for the treatment of metastatic melanoma. For locally advanced cutaneous sarcoma and malignancies, isolated limb infusion is effective for delivering regional chemotherapy. High-risk melanomas usually require adjuvant treatment. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the management and treatment of melanoma. The topics covered herein deal with the current strategies of clinical management and the potential future therapeutics of sarcoma. Scientists and students actively engaged in oncology will find this book full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

Health geography is the field concerned with the analysis of spatial patterns of disease and healthcare provision. Geography encompasses the study of human-environment interaction and influences of the biophysical, social and built environment. Health geography is a holistic field, which draws on the principles and concepts of geography, and the social and biophysical sciences. Various quantitative and qualitative methodologies are incorporated for guiding such studies. The geography of health services involves the study of the access to healthcare services, their planning and delivery. Medical geographic studies of diseases are placed in the context of disease ecology, while spatial or geographic epidemiology studies focus on the spatial aspects of healthcare. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of health geography. It elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to health geography. This book, with its detailed analyses and data, will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

The thyroid is an endocrine gland consisting of two lobes which are connected by an isthmus. It produces various hormones that have determining roles in metabolic, cardiovascular, sexual and developmental processes. There are 20,000 protein coding genes of human cells, out of which 70% are expressed in the thyroid itself. The corresponding specific proteins are involved in hormone synthesis. When there is an excessive production of thyroid hormone, it results in a condition known as hyperthyroidism. It causes a number of non-specific syndromes, such as increased appetite, weight loss, tremor, decreased tolerance of heat, muscle weakness, etc. An underactive thyroid gland causes hypothyroidism characterized by symptoms such as abnormal weight gain, heavy menstruation, cold intolerance, hair loss, etc. Nodules in the thyroid gland can cause either cancerous or non-cancerous symptoms. Any of the functional disorders of the thyroid gland can cause the enlargement of the gland and cause goiter. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about thyroid disorders. The topics covered herein deal with the management and treatment of these disorders. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Radiation oncology is a field of medical specialization which involves the use of radiation for the treatment of cancer, and the management of pain and other symptoms. It can be applied to treat varied cancers and may be used alone or in conjunction with chemotherapy, surgery and other treatments. Radiation therapy generally works on cancerous tumors owing to its ability to control cell growth. Ionizing radiation damages the DNA of cancerous tissue thus leading to cellular death. The objective of radiotherapy depends on the location, stage and type of the tumor, and accordingly it may be called adjuvant, curative, neoadjuvant therapeutic or palliative. The field of radiation oncology has undergone significant advancements resulting in higher cure rates, improved quality of life and fewer side effects. New imaging technologies of tumors specifically allow radiation beams to be directed at the cancer, thereby limiting damage to adjacent organs. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the field of radiation oncology. It aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects and the recent researches in this field. This book, with its detailed analyses and data, will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

A branch of surgery and medicine that involves the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders and diseases is known as ophthalmology. There are many changes in the eye and its surrounding areas due to various disorders and diseases, and aging. It branches into various sub-specialties like ocular oncology, ophthalmic pathology, pediatric ophthalmology, etc. These specialties are classified according to the disease or diseases of certain parts of the eye. Some of the common eye diseases are cataract, diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration and glaucoma, among others. Optical coherence tomography, ultrasonography and fluorescein angiography are some of the tests used for diagnosing eye diseases. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of ophthalmology. It includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to this field of study. This book is meant for students who are looking for an elaborate reference text on ophthalmology.

The ovaries are female reproductive organs that produce ovum. They play a crucial role in women fertility and the menstrual cycle. The ovaries progress through different stages of development that start in the prenatal period all through menopause. Disorders of the ovaries can also be classified as endocrine or reproductive disorders. Small ovarian cysts are a common occurrence in women. This occurs when the egg does not release from the follicle in the ovary. When women have more follicles than usual, a condition called the polycystic ovary syndrome may develop that can cause cycle irregularities. Some ovarian disorders are ovarian neoplasms, ovaritis, ovarian cancer, germ cell tumor, teratoma, ovarian apoplexy, follicular cyst of ovary, etc. Ovarian research seeks to build an understanding of these conditions and the genetic processes that predispose individuals to these conditions. Such research allows the development of drugs that can prevent and treat these. The objective of this book is to give a general view of the different disorders of the ovary and their management strategies. It contains some path-breaking studies in ovarian research. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.