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Environmental studies is a multidisciplinary academic field that investigates human interaction with the environment. It combines principles from economics, social sciences, physical sciences and humanities for addressing complicated modern environmental concerns. Environmental studies is a comprehensive field of study that encompasses both the built environment and the natural environment along with their interactions. It studies the basic principles of environmental science and ecology. It also includes the study of related subjects such as sociology and social justice, ethics, philosophy, natural resource management, geography, education, anthropology, politics, policy, urban planning, law, pollution control and economics. This book explores all the important aspects of environmental studies in the present day scenario. It aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of the discipline.

Environmental science consists of the application of scientific and engineering principles to improve and maintain the environment to protect human health, to protect nature's beneficial ecosystems, and to improve environment-related quality of human life. Environmental engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the application of scientific and engineering principles to improve and maintain the quality of environment. While environmental science focuses on collecting and analyzing data as well as making hypothesis on the basis of this data, environmental engineering involves the application of this data for the production of outcomes which lead to reducing the impacts of development and population growth. The book studies, analyses and explains the most important concepts in environmental engineering and science. The topics included herein are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. The book is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

A stem refers to one of the primary structural axes of a vascular plant, while the other part is root. It provides support to fruits, leaves and flowers. It is also responsible for generating new living tissue, storing nutrients, and transporting water and dissolved substances among the shoots and roots in the phloem and xylem. There are two parts of the stem which include nodes and internodes. The majority of plants have stems that are above ground whereas certain plants contain underground stems. There are three types of tissues found in a stem, namely, vascular tissue, dermal tissue and ground tissue. The dermal tissue normally covers the exterior surface of the stem and is responsible for protecting, waterproofing and regulating gas exchange. The ground tissue is primarily made up of parenchyma cells and surrounds the vascular tissue. It occasionally plays a role in the process of photosynthesis. Vascular tissue is responsible for long-distance transport as well as structural support. This book provides comprehensive insights into the anatomy of the plant stem. It is an essential guide for both academicians and those who wish to pursue this discipline further.

Agriculture refers to the practice of raising livestock, cultivating soil and growing crops. It involves preparing plant and animal products for human consumption and distributing them to marketplaces. Fibers, raw materials, foods and fuels are the four major agricultural products. Agroecology is the application of ecological principles to agricultural processes and methods as well as the application of social justice principles to entire food systems. This strategy has the potential to significantly improve farming system resilience against the effects of climate change and reversing land degradation trends. Agroecological techniques such as agroforestry have beneficial effects on nitrogen levels and fertility, water regulation, soil carbon, and biodiversity. These techniques also reduce the severity of temperature extremes. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the social and agroecological perspectives on the evolution of agriculture. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Sustainable agriculture can be defined as the successful management of agricultural resources to satisfy the changing human needs and at the same time maintaining or enhancing the quality of the environment and conserving natural resources. Research on the science of sustainable agriculture is conducted within the field of agroecology. Sustainable agriculture can be achieved by adopting farming practices such as mixed farming, crop rotation and integrated pest management (IPM). Crop rotation is a sustainable farming practice in which a variety of crops are planted sequentially on the same land that promotes the health of soil, controls the pests, and optimizes nutrients in the soil. Mixed farming is another sustainable agriculture practice in which crop production is integrated with the rearing of livestock. This book outlines the processes and applications of sustainable agriculture in detail. It will help new researchers and agricultural scientists by foregrounding their knowledge in this area of agriculture.

Agroecology refers to the use of ecological concepts and principles in farming. It contributes to sustainable development as it combines practices such as organic farming, regenerative agriculture, and permaculture. Agroecology enhances public efficiency by fostering integrated and inter-ministerial policy design and implementation. It provides farmers with greater flexibility in adapting to market fluctuations and climate change. It also provides a wide range of nutrient-dense and culturally appropriate foods that help in improving the environmental benefits of agriculture. Good agroecological practices are required for promoting the growth of sustainable agriculture. Agroecological practices such as agroforestry have beneficial effects on water regulation, biodiversity, soil carbon, nitrogen, fertility, and buffering temperature extremes. This book provides significant information of this subject to help develop a good understanding of agroecological practices and their applications in sustainable agriculture. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Potassium is an essential macronutrient required for the growth and metabolism in plants. Its deficiency causes poor root development, slow growth, low disease resistance, delayed maturity, insufficient seed production, smaller seed production and lower yields. The potassium concentration in soil is little as a major part of potassium exists in insoluble form. It has been further depleted due to the rapid development of agriculture along with an extensive use of fertilizers. In order to mitigate the effects of potassium deficiency, several strains of bacteria and fungi have been identified for their potential of high potassium solubilization. Pisolithus, Cenococcum, Piloderma, Bacillus, Paenibacillus, Acidithiobacillus, Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Aspergillus and Clostridium are some of the species that release large amounts of potassium from different minerals. These species can potentially enhance the productivity of many crops. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world on various topics related to the role of potassium in agriculture. Agronomists, educators and students in this field will be assisted by this book.

Palynology is a scientific discipline that involves the study of plant pollen, spores and certain microscopic planktonic organisms, in both living and fossil form. Palynology has several applications in areas such as aerobiology, archaeology, forensic science and crime scene investigation, and allergy studies. Botany makes use of living pollen and spores to study plant relationships and their evolutions. The study of pollen in honey, with the purpose of identifying the source plants used by bees in the production of honey is known as melissopalynology. This study is beneficial to the production of honey as the honey produced by pollen and nectar from certain plants such as mesquite, buckwheat, tupelo or citrus trees is priced higher than that produced by other plant sources. It also studies the plants that produce nectar and pollen that is dangerous to human health. This book is compiled in such a manner that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of palynology. It is an essential guide for both botanists and students who wish to pursue this discipline further.

The variability and variety of plant life which exists on the Earth is known as plant biodiversity. It faces threats from multiple sources such as extraction of resources, climate change, and human-driven disturbances. Remote sensing is a technology that enables the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object in contrast to in-situ or on-site observation. It uses satellites, drones, and air-based sensors to gather information on a specific object or area. The techniques of remote sensing can be utilized for consistent and multi-temporal analysis of plant biodiversity. This book is a detailed explanation of the various applications of remote sensing techniques with respect to plant biodiversity. It will also provide interesting topics for research, which interested readers can take up. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language, and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

The variability and variety of plant life which exists on the Earth is known as plant biodiversity. It faces threats from multiple sources such as extraction of resources, climate change, and human-driven disturbances. Remote sensing is a technology that enables the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object in contrast to in-situ or on-site observation. It uses satellites, drones, and air-based sensors to gather information on a specific object or area. The techniques of remote sensing can be utilized for consistent and multi-temporal analysis of plant biodiversity. This book is a detailed explanation of the various applications of remote sensing techniques with respect to plant biodiversity. It will also provide interesting topics for research, which interested readers can take up. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language, and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

Aquaponic food production systems integrate two production systems, namely, aquaculture and hydroponics in a single production system. Aquaculture is related to growing fish in a closed environment whereas hydroponics involves growing plants in a soil-less environment. Aquaponic systems offer an alternate technology solution for some of the major problems in the world such as population growth, urbanization, water shortages, land and soil degradation, environmental pollution, world hunger, and climate change. There are three major components of the aquaponics freshwater systems which include freshwater aquatic animals (such as fish), nitrifying bacteria, and plants. All these three living entities are dependent on each other for their survival. Bacteria consume the fish waste and generate nutrients which are used by the plants. As plants grow, nutrients are removed from the water, making it clean for the fish. Aquaponic food production systems are an intensive yet sustainable food production system. Moreover, aquaponics do not require soil and are therefore not susceptible to soil-borne diseases. This book outlines the principles of aquaponics food production systems in detail. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Aquaponic food production systems integrate two production systems, namely, aquaculture and hydroponics in a single production system. Aquaculture is related to growing fish in a closed environment whereas hydroponics involves growing plants in a soil-less environment. Aquaponic systems offer an alternate technology solution for some of the major problems in the world such as population growth, urbanization, water shortages, land and soil degradation, environmental pollution, world hunger, and climate change. There are three major components of the aquaponics freshwater systems which include freshwater aquatic animals (such as fish), nitrifying bacteria, and plants. All these three living entities are dependent on each other for their survival. Bacteria consume the fish waste and generate nutrients which are used by the plants. As plants grow, nutrients are removed from the water, making it clean for the fish. Aquaponic food production systems are an intensive yet sustainable food production system. Moreover, aquaponics do not require soil and are therefore not susceptible to soil-borne diseases. This book outlines the principles of aquaponics food production systems in detail. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Capsicum refers to a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family solanaceae. It is farmed for its bell pepper fruit or chili pepper throughout the world. Capsicum is a major spice crop and vegetable, which is grown for dried, processed and fresh products. It is primarily a temperate crop that requires a low temperature for fruit set and its growth. The low temperature is also responsible for the color development of capsicum. It thrives during summer in the hills and in the plains during winters. Capsicum comes in a variety of species and hues and can taste tart and sweet; however, green variants have a little more flavor. It has a wide range of flavors and nutritional qualities. There are several benefits of capsicum such as reducing anxiety, improving bone health, preventing anemia and cancer, boosting immunity, and improving eye health. This book unravels the biology, cultivation and applications of capsicum. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

Agricultural science is a multidisciplinary field of biology, which includes components of economic, natural and social sciences. These components are utilized in the study and practice of agriculture. The two types of farming which are studied within agricultural science are conventional farming and organic farming. Conventional farming is a method which involves the usage of pesticides and other chemicals for obtaining highest production of crops. Organic farming is an agricultural approach which emphasizes on methods of companion planting and crop rotation along with the utilization of organic fertilizers including bone meal, compost manure and green manure. There is a significant distinction between organic and conventional farming in terms of tools and methods used to cultivate crops, but they also have varied ethics and principles. Organic farming strives to maintain the quality of ecology, water and land, whereas conventional farming solely looks for increased profits and yields. The aim of this book is to present researches that have transformed the study of conventional and organic farming and aided their advancement. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of agricultural science as well as for experts.

Agricultural biotechnology or agrifood biotechnology is a field of agricultural science that includes the use of biological or chemical tools and processes used in the farm and in post-farming processes. It involves the use of different scientific tools and techniques, including genetics, breeding, microbiome research, synthetic chemistry and animal health. Genetics refers to the scientific study of heredity and genes. Genetic processes allow the transfer of useful characteristics from one plant to another by directly manipulating an organism's genetic material. Breeding is the science that focuses on changing plant traits to produce desired characteristics. Animal health comprises technologies that improve the quality of animal feed and animal health. It also consists of technologies that create novel animal feeds which can be used as primary or secondary food sources. This book provides significant information that helps in developing a good understanding of agri-food biotechnology. It can prove to be an essential guide for all those who are interested in this field.

Genetic diversity refers to the range of different inherited traits or the variation in the alleles and genotypes within a species. The genetic diversity of a particular habitat depends on factors such as the nature of the environment, which in turn consists of factors such as climate and the availability of food and other natural resources. Genetic diversity occurs due to three distinct causes, namely, mutation, recombination, and immigration of genes. It plays a crucial role in deciphering evolutionary and adaptive process for most species. It is also used to implement conservation strategies and crop management. Genetic diversity is gradually declining due to human activities. Around the world, forest habitats and wetlands are being altered, most of which are rich in flora and fauna species. Such lands are now being drained for agriculture and urban development. Humans are engaged in overfishing activities, which has led to the endangerment of many marine fish species and disruption of the ocean ecosystems. This book provides comprehensive insights on genetic diversity. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers up-to-date with the recent developments in the concerned area of study.

The process of reproduction in plants involves the production of new offspring. There are two modes of reproduction in plants, namely, sexual and asexual reproduction. The process of sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes that results in offspring being genetically different from the parent plants. Meiosis and fertilization are two fundamental processes involved in sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction, offspring are produced without the fusion of gametes. Asexual reproduction results in the formation of genetically identical offspring. Budding, fragmentation, spore formation, regeneration and vegetative propagation are different ways of asexual reproduction in plants. The most common form of plant reproduction technique used by cultivators is the use of seeds. Asexual techniques such as cutting, grafting, budding, layering, division, and sectioning of rhizomes, roots, tubers and bulbs, are used to produce desirable characteristics that are usually not obtained from seeds. This book outlines the biology and physiology of plant reproduction in detail. It aims to equip students and experts with the advanced topics and upcoming concepts in this area of study.

Climate change is the long-term ongoing shift in temperatures and weather patterns on Earth, due to human activities. The combustion of fossil fuels including gas, coal and oil emits greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Greenhouse gases trap heat on Earth and do not allow it to escape, causing the greenhouse effect. Furthermore, increasing temperatures continue to melt ice sheets, which contribute in rising sea levels. This further endangers coastal and island communities, whose livelihoods are jeopardized due to increased storms, which is another result of climate change. Rising temperatures cause more water to evaporate and precipitate resulting in severe flooding. This book explores all the important aspects of climate change in the present day scenario. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Climate change encompasses the global warming caused by humans such as increased greenhouse gas emissions, and the ensuing large-scale weather pattern adjustments. The effects of climate change are global in scope and unparalleled in scale. These effects range from changing weather patterns that jeopardize food production to rising sea levels that increase the risk of catastrophic flooding. There are various problems caused by climate change including species extinction, food insecurity, plastic waste crisis, air pollution, ocean acidification, and deforestation. These problems can be eliminated by investing in renewable substances, decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, reducing food waste, decreasing the usage of single use plastics, and putting more efforts in wildlife conservation. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to the issues and challenges of climate change. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this area of study.

The study of the Earth's atmosphere along with the processes related to it is known as atmospheric science. It is also involved in studying the effects which other systems have on it. Some of the sub-disciplines which fall under atmospheric science are meteorology, climatology and aeronomy. Meteorology deals primarily with weather forecasting using atmospheric physics and atmospheric chemistry. Climatology studies the long and short term changes in the atmosphere which define average climate of a particular geographical location. Aeronomy is concerned with the study of the higher layers of the atmosphere, focusing particularly on the processes of dissociation and ionization. This textbook provides comprehensive insights into the field of atmospheric science. It presents this complex subject in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. The book will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

Soil science includes the study of soil as a natural resource that is found on the Earth's surface. It primarily focuses on the classification of soil and soil formation. Soil science also delves into the biological, physical and chemical properties of soil as well as its fertility. The classification of soil is based on the soil morphology. There are various branches of soil science such as pedology and edaphology. Pedology deals with the formation, morphology, chemistry and classification of soil. Edaphology focuses on the interaction of soil with living things. It is an umbrella field which encompasses and utilizes various disciplines including ecology, agronomy, geology, archaeology, silviculture, microbiology, physical geography and biology. This book explores all the important aspects of soil science in the present day scenario. Some of the diverse topics covered herein address the varied branches that fall under this category. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

Meteorology is the scientific study of atmospheric phenomena, occurring in the lower stratosphere and troposphere. It also encompasses the study of weather. An important area of meteorological studies is the observation, understanding and forecasting of weather. Some of the focus areas of meteorology are climate modeling, climate change, remote sensing and air quality. Atmospheric parameters are measured using radar, weather balloons, satellites and buoys. They are relayed to weather centers to predict the future state of the atmosphere. Meteorological studies operate on four meteorological scales- microscale, mesoscale, global and synoptic scales. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of meteorology. Also included in this book is a detailed explanation of the various weather, climate and environment studies that are under the purview of meteorology. The readers would also gain knowledge that would broaden their perspective about this field.

Computational biology is concerned with the application and development of theoretical and data-analytical methods, computational simulation techniques and mathematical modeling to study behavioral, ecological, biological and social systems. Computational biology is a broad field which uses principles and concepts from computer science, genetics, genomics, biochemistry, biophysics, applied mathematics, molecular biology and statistics. Computational anatomy, computational biomodeling, cancer computational biology, computational pharmacology and computational neuroscience are a few of the important sub-fields of computational biology. It can be used to assist the creation of accurate models of the human brain and in modeling biological systems. Computational biology also helps in sequencing the human genome. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of computational biology. The various sub-fields within this discipline along with technological progress that have future implications are glanced at in it. This book is appropriate for those seeking detailed information in this area.

The study of the process through which animals and plants develop and grow is known as developmental biology. There are various aspects which are covered under developmental biology such as asexual reproduction, metamorphosis and the biology of regeneration. Some of the processes which are studied under this discipline are morphogenesis, cell differentiation and regional specification. Research in developmental biology makes use of a small number of model organisms. These non-human organisms are chosen with the aim that discoveries which are made in the study of these models will provide insights into the workings of other organisms. This book unfolds the innovative aspects of developmental biology which will be crucial for the progress of this field in the future. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The field of science which deals with different aspects of animal health is known as veterinary science. Some of these aspects are genetics, microbiology, breeding, livestock management, meat products technology, pathology, pharmacology and surgery. Veterinary medicine is a branch of veterinary science which deals with treatment, diagnosis and prevention of injuries, diseases and disorders in animals. There are a wide spectrum of conditions which can affect different animal species, all of which are studied and treated within this discipline. Veterinary science also plays a crucial role in aiding human health through the control and monitoring of zoonotic diseases. This book unfolds the innovative aspects of veterinary science which will be crucial for the progress of this field in the future. Some of the diverse topics covered in this book address the varied branches that fall under this category. It includes contributions of experts and scientists which will provide innovative insights into this field.

The production of vegetables and fruits for human consumption is known as vegetables and fruits farming. The most common types of farmed vegetables are fabaceae, solanaceae, allium, carrots and lettuce. Vegetables are grown for three major reasons- to produce vegetables for fresh market, for preserving them, and for seeds. Some of the techniques which are used for the farming of fruits and vegetables are organic farming, raised bed farming, vertical farming and hydroponic farming. There has been a steady increase in the yield of fruit crops in the past few decades. This has been made possible due to improvements in technology and consolidation of fruit industries in the most favorable climates. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of vegetable and fruit farming. It elucidates new techniques and their applications in a multidisciplinary approach. The book will serve as a valuable source of reference for those interested in this field.

The branch of science which interprets the interaction of nutrients present in food with respect to maintenance, health, disease and growth of organisms is known as nutrition. It studies various biological processes such as absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis and excretion. Some of the different nutrients studied under this field are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals. Diet therapy is a domain of dietetics which is concerned with the usage of foods for therapeutic purposes. It generally involves the alteration of the dietary lifestyle of a person in order to promote optimum health. Some of the therapies which fall under diet therapy are full liquid diet, clear liquid diet, pureed diet, renal diet and high fiber diet. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of nutrition and diet therapy. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. Scientists and students actively engaged in this field will find this book full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

The component of school education which focuses on psychomotor learning through movement exploration and play is known as physical education. It also seeks to impart knowledge regarding the health benefits of regular exercise and balanced diet as well as the risks associated with inactivity and poor diet. The system of activities which are based on physical athleticism or physical dexterity fall under the category of sports. They are generally used to maintain and improve physical abilities and skills. Sports are generally governed by a set of rules which exist to ensure fair competition and allow consistent adjudication of a winner. Some of the associated fields of study related to sports are sports engineering and sports science. It presents these complex subjects in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. The various advancements in the fields of physical education and sport are glanced at and their applications as well as ramifications are looked at in detail. This book will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in these fields.

The branch of medicine which deals with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases and disorders in animals is referred to as veterinary science and medicine. It focuses on all species of animals as well as the conditions that affect them. Veterinary science also plays an important role in ensuring human health. This is done by preventing humans from getting infected by zoonotic diseases. Veterinary medicine also takes care of food safety and helps to maintain food supply by the monitoring and treatment of livestock health. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of veterinary science and medicine. While understanding the long-term perspectives of the topics, it makes an effort in highlighting their impact as a modern tool for the growth of the discipline. The book, with its detailed analyses and data, will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

The resources that exist naturally and without actions of humankind are known as natural resources. Some of the varied natural resources that are available on Earth are sunlight, water, land and atmosphere as well as all crops, vegetation and animal life. They can also exist in another form that needs to be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, petroleum, rare earth metals and various forms of energy. They can be classified in different ways such as origin and stage of development. On the basis of origin, they are classified as biotic and abiotic resources. They can also be categorized as potential resources, actual resources, reserve resources and stock resources, on the basis of their stage of development. Using natural resources for economic growth, generally at the cost of environmental degradation is referred to as exploitation of natural resources. The consumption of a resource faster than it can be replenished is known as depletion. The practices involved in the protection and restoration of natural resources are referred to as natural resource conservation. The topics included in this textbook on natural resources are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. Some of the diverse topics covered in this book address the varied branches that fall under this category. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.