Bøger af Mohamed Abdel-Raheem

La fragola coltivata a frutto grosso(Fragaria ×ananassa) è nata in Europa nel XVIII secolo. La maggior parte dei Paesi ha sviluppato le proprie varietà nel corso del XIX secolo, spesso particolarmente adatte al clima, alla lunghezza del giorno, all'altitudine o al tipo di produzione richiesta in una determinata regione. Le fragole sono prodotte a livello commerciale sia per il consumo immediato che per la lavorazione come bacche congelate, in scatola, conservate o come succo. Data la natura deperibile delle bacche e l'improbabilità di una raccolta meccanica, i frutti sono generalmente coltivati vicino ai centri di consumo o di trasformazione e dove è disponibile una manodopera sufficiente. Sono note circa 200 specie di parassiti che attaccano le fragole sia direttamente che indirettamente. Questi parassiti includono lumache, falene, mosche della frutta, moscerini, tonchio delle radici della fragola, tripide della fragola, coleottero della linfa della fragola, tignola della corona della fragola, acari, afidi e altri. I bruchi di diverse specie di Lepidotteri si nutrono delle piante di fragola. Ad esempio, la falena fantasma è nota per essere un parassita della pianta di fragola. L'afide della fragola, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, è una specie di insetto presente negli Stati Uniti (Arizona), in Argentina e in Cile.

Die kultivierte großfrüchtige Erdbeere(Fragaria ×ananassa) hat ihren Ursprung in Europa im 18. Die meisten Länder entwickelten im 19. Jahrhundert ihre eigenen Sorten, die oft besonders gut für das Klima, die Tageslänge, die Höhenlage oder die Art der Produktion in einer bestimmten Region geeignet sind. Erdbeeren werden sowohl für den unmittelbaren Verzehr als auch für die Weiterverarbeitung als gefrorene, konservierte oder eingemachte Beeren oder als Saft kommerziell produziert. Da die Beeren leicht verderblich sind und eine maschinelle Ernte unwahrscheinlich ist, werden die Früchte in der Regel in der Nähe von Verbrauchs- oder Verarbeitungszentren angebaut, wo genügend Arbeitskräfte zur Verfügung stehen. Es sind rund 200 Schädlingsarten bekannt, die Erdbeeren sowohl direkt als auch indirekt befallen. Zu diesen Schädlingen gehören Schnecken, Motten, Fruchtfliegen, Scheuerfliegen, Erdbeerwurzelkäfer, Erdbeerthripse, Erdbeersaftkäfer, Erdbeerkronenmotte, Milben, Blattläuse und andere. Die Raupen einer Reihe von Lepidoptera-Arten ernähren sich von Erdbeerpflanzen. Die Gespenstermotte zum Beispiel ist als Schädling der Erdbeerpflanze bekannt. Die Erdbeerblattlaus, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, ist eine Wanzenart, die in den Vereinigten Staaten (Arizona), Argentinien und Chile vorkommt.

La fraise à gros fruits(Fragaria ×ananassa) cultivée est apparue en Europe au XVIIIe siècle. La plupart des pays ont développé leurs propres variétés au cours du XIXe siècle, et celles-ci sont souvent particulièrement adaptées au climat, à la longueur du jour, à l'altitude ou au type de production requis dans une région donnée. Les fraises sont produites commercialement à la fois pour la consommation immédiate et pour la transformation en baies congelées, en conserve ou en jus. Compte tenu de la nature périssable des baies et de l'improbabilité d'une cueillette mécanique, les fruits sont généralement cultivés à proximité des centres de consommation ou de transformation et là où il y a suffisamment de main-d'oeuvre. On sait qu'environ 200 espèces de ravageurs s'attaquent aux fraises, directement ou indirectement. Ces ravageurs comprennent les limaces, les papillons de nuit, les mouches des fruits, les hannetons, les charançons des racines du fraisier, les thrips du fraisier, les coléoptères de la sève du fraisier, la noctuelle du fraisier, les acariens, les pucerons et d'autres encore. Les chenilles d'un certain nombre d'espèces de lépidoptères se nourrissent de fraisiers. Par exemple, la teigne fantôme est connue pour être un ravageur du fraisier. Le puceron du fraisier, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, est une espèce de punaise présente aux États-Unis (Arizona), en Argentine et au Chili.

O morangueiro cultivado de frutos grandes(Fragaria ×ananassa) teve origem na Europa no século XVIII. A maioria dos países desenvolveu as suas próprias variedades durante o século XIX, que são frequentemente especialmente adequadas ao clima, à duração do dia, à altitude ou ao tipo de produção exigido numa determinada região. Os morangos são produzidos comercialmente tanto para consumo imediato como para transformação em bagas congeladas, enlatadas, conservadas ou em sumo. Dada a natureza perecível das bagas e a improbabilidade de colheita mecânica, o fruto é geralmente cultivado perto de centros de consumo ou de transformação e onde existe mão de obra suficiente. Sabe-se que cerca de 200 espécies de pragas atacam direta ou indiretamente os morangos. Estes parasitas incluem lesmas, traças, moscas da fruta, gorgulhos da raiz do morangueiro, tripes do morangueiro, escaravelhos da seiva do morangueiro, traça da coroa do morangueiro, ácaros, pulgões e outros. As lagartas de um certo número de espécies de Lepidoptera alimentam-se das plantas de morangueiro. Por exemplo, a traça-fantasma é conhecida por ser uma praga da planta do morangueiro. O pulgão do morangueiro, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, é uma espécie de inseto presente nos Estados Unidos (Arizona), na Argentina e no Chile.

The cultivated large-fruited strawberry (Fragaria ×ananassa) originated in Europe in the 18th century. Most countries developed their own varieties during the 19th century, and those are often especially suitable for the climate, day length, altitude, or type of production required in a particular region. Strawberries are produced commercially both for immediate consumption and for processing as frozen, canned, or preserved berries or as juice. Given the perishable nature of the berries and the unlikelihood of mechanical picking, the fruit is generally grown near centres of consumption or processing and where sufficient labour is available. Around 200 species of pests are known to attack strawberries both directly and indirectly. These pests include slugs, moths, fruit flies, chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry sap beetles, strawberry crown moth, mites, aphids, and others. The caterpillars of a number of species of Lepidoptera feed on strawberry plants. For example, the Ghost moth is known to be a pest of the strawberry plant. The strawberry aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, is a bug species found in the United States (Arizona), Argentina and Chile.

'Nano' significa piccolo, molto piccolo; ma perché è speciale? Ci sono diverse ragioni per cui le nanoscienze e le nanotecnologie sono così promettenti nel campo dei materiali, dell'ingegneria e delle scienze correlate. Innanzitutto, su scala nanometrica le proprietà della materia, come l'energia, cambiano. Si tratta di una conseguenza diretta delle piccole dimensioni dei nanomateriali, spiegata fisicamente come effetti quantistici. Ne consegue che un materiale (ad esempio un metallo), quando è in forma nanometrica, può assumere proprietà molto diverse da quelle dello stesso materiale in forma massiva. Per esempio, l'argento sfuso non è tossico, mentre le nanoparticelle di argento sono in grado di uccidere i virus al contatto.

Nano" bedeutet klein, sehr klein; aber warum ist das so besonders? Es gibt verschiedene Gründe, warum die Nanowissenschaft und die Nanotechnologien in den Bereichen Werkstoffe, Technik und verwandte Wissenschaften so vielversprechend sind. Erstens ändern sich im Nanometermaßstab die Eigenschaften der Materie, z. B. die Energie. Dies ist eine direkte Folge der geringen Größe von Nanomaterialien und lässt sich physikalisch als Quanteneffekt erklären. Dies hat zur Folge, dass ein Material (z. B. ein Metall) in Nanogröße Eigenschaften annehmen kann, die sich stark von denen unterscheiden, die dasselbe Material in der Masseform aufweist. So ist beispielsweise Silber als Masse ungiftig, während Silber-Nanopartikel in der Lage sind, Viren bei Kontakt abzutöten.

"Nano" significa pequeno, muito pequeno; mas porque é que isto é especial? Há várias razões pelas quais a nanociência e as nanotecnologias são tão promissoras nos materiais, na engenharia e nas ciências afins. Em primeiro lugar, à escala nanométrica, as propriedades da matéria, como a energia, alteram-se. Trata-se de uma consequência direta da pequena dimensão dos nanomateriais, explicada fisicamente como efeitos quânticos. A consequência é que um material (por exemplo, um metal), quando em forma nanométrica, pode assumir propriedades muito diferentes das que tem quando o mesmo material se encontra em forma de massa. Por exemplo, a prata a granel não é tóxica, enquanto as nanopartículas de prata são capazes de matar vírus por contacto.

Nano" signifie petit, très petit ; mais pourquoi cette particularité ? Plusieurs raisons expliquent pourquoi les nanosciences et les nanotechnologies sont si prometteuses dans le domaine des matériaux, de l'ingénierie et des sciences connexes. Tout d'abord, à l'échelle du nanomètre, les propriétés de la matière, telles que l'énergie, changent. Il s'agit d'une conséquence directe de la petite taille des nanomatériaux, qui s'explique physiquement par des effets quantiques. Il en résulte qu'un matériau (par exemple un métal), lorsqu'il se présente sous une forme nanométrique, peut avoir des propriétés très différentes de celles du même matériau lorsqu'il se présente sous une forme globale. Par exemple, l'argent en vrac n'est pas toxique, alors que les nanoparticules d'argent sont capables de tuer les virus au contact.

Les vaccins diffèrent des autres médicaments sur deux points importants. Tout d'abord, ils sont conçus pour prévenir les maladies, plutôt que pour les traiter. Pour ce faire, ils préparent le système immunitaire d'une personne à reconnaître une bactérie, un virus ou un autre agent pathogène spécifique à l'origine d'une maladie. Cette "mémoire" peut durer des années ou, dans certains cas, toute la vie. C'est pourquoi la vaccination peut être si efficace, en empêchant les gens de tomber malades plutôt qu'en attendant que la maladie se déclare. Deuxièmement, les vaccins sont par nature des produits biologiques, plutôt que des produits chimiques comme la plupart des médicaments. Cela signifie non seulement que les processus de fabrication sont généralement plus complexes et plus coûteux, mais aussi qu'ils sont généralement moins stables que les produits chimiques et plus vulnérables aux changements de température. C'est pourquoi les vaccins doivent normalement être réfrigérés pour être maintenus dans une fourchette de température spécifique. Le type de vaccin détermine la température à laquelle il doit être conservé. La plupart des vaccins doivent être conservés au réfrigérateur ou au congélateur, mais des vaccins intranasaux sont actuellement mis au point et peuvent être conservés à température ambiante.

Os insectos oleaginosos podem degradar vários resíduos orgânicos para acumular biomassa à base de gordura, servindo assim como uma potencial matéria-prima para a produção de biodiesel. Por conseguinte, a utilização de insectos alimentados com resíduos orgânicos para a produção de biodiesel tem atraído cada vez mais investigações consideráveis. Nos últimos anos, diferentes espécies de insectos têm sido estudadas pela sua eficiência na conversão de vários resíduos orgânicos e na produção de biodiesel a partir da sua gordura. Vários métodos têm sido desenvolvidos para a produção de biodiesel a partir de insectos para melhorar os rendimentos e reduzir os custos de produção e os impactos ambientais. Esta análise resume as últimas descobertas da utilização de insectos para a conversão de resíduos orgânicos em biodiesel. Os processos de produção e propriedades do combustível do biodiesel produzido a partir de insectos.

As vacinas diferem de outros medicamentos em dois aspectos importantes. A primeira é o facto de serem concebidas para prevenir a doença, em vez de a tratar. Fazem-no preparando o sistema imunitário de uma pessoa para reconhecer bactérias, vírus ou outros agentes patogénicos específicos causadores de doenças. Esta "memória" pode durar anos ou, nalguns casos, toda a vida, razão pela qual a vacinação pode ser tão eficaz, impedindo as pessoas de ficarem doentes em vez de esperar que a doença ocorra. A segunda é que as vacinas, pela sua natureza, tendem a ser produtos biológicos, em vez de químicos como a maioria dos medicamentos. Isto significa não só que os processos envolvidos no seu fabrico são normalmente mais complexos e dispendiosos, mas também que tendem a ser menos estáveis do que os produtos químicos e mais vulneráveis a alterações de temperatura. Por este motivo, as vacinas necessitam normalmente de ser refrigeradas para se manterem dentro de um intervalo de temperatura específico. O tipo de vacina determinará a temperatura a que a vacina deve ser armazenada. A maioria das vacinas tem de ser conservada no frigorífico ou congelada, mas estão actualmente a ser desenvolvidas vacinas intranasais que podem ser conservadas à temperatura ambiente.

O desenvolvimento sustentável é um princípio organizador que visa atingir os objectivos de desenvolvimento humano e, ao mesmo tempo, permitir que os sistemas naturais forneçam os recursos naturais e os serviços ecossistémicos necessários aos seres humanos. O resultado desejado é uma sociedade em que as condições de vida e os recursos satisfazem as necessidades humanas sem comprometer a integridade planetária e a estabilidade do sistema natural. O desenvolvimento sustentável tenta encontrar um equilíbrio entre o desenvolvimento económico, a proteção do ambiente e o bem-estar social. O Relatório Brundtland de 1987 definiu o desenvolvimento sustentável como "um desenvolvimento que satisfaz as necessidades da geração atual sem comprometer a capacidade das gerações futuras de satisfazerem as suas próprias necessidades". Atualmente, o conceito de desenvolvimento sustentável centra-se no desenvolvimento económico, no desenvolvimento social e na proteção do ambiente para as gerações futuras. O desenvolvimento sustentável foi institucionalizado pela primeira vez com o Processo do Rio, iniciado na Cimeira da Terra de 1992, no Rio de Janeiro.

Ticks are able to transmit tick-borne infectious agents to vertebrate hosts which cause major constraints to public and livestock health. The costs associated with mortality, relapse, treatments, and decreased production yields are economically significant. Ticks adapted to a hematophagous existence after the vertebrate hemostatic system evolved into a multi-layered defense system against foreign invasion (pathogens and ectoparasites), blood loss, and immune responses. Subsequently, ticks evolved by developing an ability to suppress the vertebrate host immune system with a devastating impact particularly for exotic and crossbred cattle. Host genetics defines the immune responsiveness against ticks and tick-borne pathogens. Pesticides are commonly regarded as substances used to control organisms such as insects, fungi, weeds, and microbes that destroy plants, particularly those for food production. EPF are a species of fungal pathogens for arthropods. They are considered cosmopolitan saprophytic organisms that live in diverse ecosystems and climates (e.g., tropical, temperate, arid and artic), where they interact with arthropods in many terrestrial and aquatic habitats.

Sustainable development is an organizing principle that aims to meet human development goals while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary natural resources and ecosystem services to humans. The desired result is a society where living conditions and resources meet human needs without undermining the planetary integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental protection, and social well-being. The Brundtland Report in 1987 defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". The concept of sustainable development nowadays has a focus on economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations. Sustainable development was first institutionalized with the Rio Process initiated at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.

There are many risk factors for cancer: age, family history, viruses and bacteria, lifestyle (behaviors), and contact with (touching, eating, drinking, or breathing) harmful substances. More than 100,000 chemicals are used by Americans, and about 1,000 new chemicals are introduced each year. These chemicals are found in everyday items, such as foods, personal products, packaging, prescription drugs, and household and lawn care products. While some chemicals can be harmful, not all contact with chemicals is dangerous to your health. This booklet will discuss the relationship between contact with harmful chemicals, cancer, and you. It will explain risk factors (things that make you likelier to get cancer), how cancer develops, and how contact with (exposure to) chemicals affects your body. Some factors that increase your risk of developing cancer include behaviors such as smoking, heavy alcohol consumption, on-the-job exposure to chemicals, radiation and sun exposure, and some viruses and bacteria. When all these risks are considered together, the role of chemical exposures in causing cancer is small and, as of now, not very clear.

Forensics is a hot topic, and many youth have seen forensic entomology practiced in movies and on popular television shows (such as ¿CSI¿) as a way to solve crimes such as murder cases. Even for those who are not aware of the current trend, a murder case is something that consistently piques the interest of youth.Is the science that applies Insect Biology in criminal investigations, where insects and other arthropods are used to detect the circumstances of criminal cases? It is noteworthy that the first use of insects in criminal investigations was in China in 1235, when the mystery of the case of the killing of Chinese farmers was exposed by a deep blow to the village, the village leader asked the farmers to bring their wagons, and put them on the ground, and do not work any movement, The flies collected on one of these machetes and revealed the killer; because of the traces of blood and flesh on his sickle which he used for the crime, despite his diligence in cleaning it to hide his crime; flies attracted to the smell.

Climate change will affect agricultural production worldwide. Average global crop yields for maize, or corn, may see a decrease of 24% by late century, if current climate change trends continue. Wheat, in contrast, may see an uptick in crop yields by about 17%. The change in yields is due to the projected increases in temperature, shifts in rainfall patterns and elevated surface carbon dioxide concentrations due to human-caused greenhouse gas emissions, making it more difficult to grow maize in the tropics and expanding wheat¿s growing range. Wheat, which grows best in temperate climates, may see a broader area where it can be grown in places such as the northern United States and Canada, North China Plains, Central Asia, southern Australia and East Africa as temperatures rise, but these gains may level off mid-century. Temperature alone is not the only factor the models consider when simulating future crop yields. Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have a positive effect on photosynthesis and water retention, more so for wheat than maize, which are accounted for better in the new generation of models.

In jüngster Zeit haben sich die Umweltprobleme durch schädliche Abgasemissionen und steigende Mengen an Kohlendioxid (CO2) aus der Verbrennung fossiler Brennstoffe verschärft. Erneuerbare Kraftstoffe sind ein möglicher Ersatz für die begrenzten fossilen Kraftstoffressourcen, da die Verwendung biobasierter Kraftstoffe nicht nur den Verbrauch fossiler Kraftstoffe, sondern auch den Ausstoß von Treibhausgasen (THG) verringern und somit zur Lösung von Problemen im Zusammenhang mit dem Umweltschutz und der nachhaltigen Entwicklung beitragen kann. Die Anwendung alternativer Kraftstoffe in Verbrennungsmotoren hat in den letzten Jahren aufgrund des Potenzials zur Emissionsreduzierung (z. B. Verringerung der Feinstaubemissionen) an Interesse gewonnen. Die Energiekrise gehört zu den größten Problemen, die dazu führen, dass die Welt unsicher und nicht friedlich ist. Die Nachfrage steigt von Tag zu Tag. Die verfügbaren Ressourcen nehmen rapide ab, und es gibt Anzeichen dafür, dass sie bald verschwunden sein werden. In einer solchen Situation muss den erneuerbaren Energiequellen mehr Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt werden. Fossile Brennstoffe werden weltweit in großem Umfang genutzt, sind aber nicht nachhaltig, da sie den CO2-Gehalt erhöhen und Treibhausgase anreichern, die die Umwelt belasten.

Der ägyptische Baumwollanbau erfuhr unter dem unternehmungslustigen Mohamed Ali (1805-1848) eine plötzliche Entwicklung, die eigentlich auf einen Zufall zurückzuführen war. Es gibt mehrere Baumwollsorten, die in Ägypten verwendet werden, wie die extralangstapeligen Sorten (Giza 70, 76, 77, 84, 88 & 92) im Delta; (Giza 75, 81, 85, 86 & 89) in Mittel- und Oberägypten; Giza 80, 83 & 90). Im laufenden Jahr wurden die extralangen Stapelsorten in Domiat, Giza 70 und Beheira, Giza 88 angebaut. Mehr als 1300 pflanzenfressende Insekten befielen die Baumwolle. Trotz der geringen Anzahl dieser Insekten ist sie von wirtschaftlicher Bedeutung. Der Baumwollanbau hat einen hohen Bedarf an Insektiziden zum Schutz vor Insekten. Beim Baumwollanbau verwendeten die Landwirte etwa 22,5 % der insgesamt eingesetzten Insektizide.

Recently, environmental issues have been exacerbated by harmful exhaust emissions and increasing levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) from fossil fuels combustion. Renewable fuels are a possible substitute for limited fossil fuel resources because the use of biobased fuels will not only help mitigate fossil fuel consumption, but also reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and therefore help to address issues related to environmental protection and sustainable development. The application of alternative fuels in internal combustion (IC) engines has gained interest over the years due to the potential for emissions reduction such as lowering particulate matter (PM) emissions. Energy crisis is among the biggest problems, leading the world to be unsafe and non-peaceful. The demand is increasing day by day. The available resources are rapidly decreasing and indication is, soon will be vanished. In such situations, more attention is needed to be given towards renewable energy sources. Fossil fuels are used on a large scale in the world, but unsustainable because they increase CO2 level and accumulate greenhouse gases which make the environment unhealthy.

Le climat est l'un des principaux moteurs de la croissance des organismes et de la répartition des espèces ; par conséquent, un climat changeant peut potentiellement modifier la composition des communautés de plantes et de sols et les interactions entre elles. Toutefois, on sait très peu de choses sur les mécanismes sous-jacents impliqués et sur les conséquences pour les rétroactions sur le climat. En particulier, la plupart des études sur les FSP ont examiné le rôle des communautés microbiennes du sol, en se concentrant sur les effets nets de tous les microbes qui influencent positivement ou négativement les performances des plantes. L'identification des processus microbiens qui sous-tendent les changements dans les FSP, tels que les altérations induites par le changement climatique dans l'équilibre des taxons pathogènes et mutualistes ou des taxons microbiens saprophytes qui médient l'approvisionnement en nutriments des plantes, est un défi et nécessite l'identification de la contribution individuelle des différents composants biotiques du sol aux FSP. Nous abordons ici les réponses des PSF au changement climatique et leurs conséquences pour la biodiversité, le fonctionnement des écosystèmes et les effets potentiels de rétroaction sur le changement climatique.

Climate is one of the main drivers of organism growth and species distributions; thus, a changing climate has the potential to alter the composition of plant and soil communities and the interactions between them. However, very little is known about the underlying mechanisms involved and the consequences for feedbacks to climate. In particular, most studies of PSFs have examined the role of soil microbial communities, focusing on net effects of all microbes involved in influencing plant performance positively and negatively. Identifying the microbial processes that underlie changes in PSFs, such as climate change¿induced alterations in the balance of pathogenic and mutualistic taxa or saprophytic microbial taxa that mediate plant nutrient supply, is challenging and requires identifying the individual contribution of the various soil biotic components to PSFs. Here, we address the responses of PSFs to climate change and their consequences for biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, and potential feedback effects to climate change.

Climate change puts at risk the food supplies of people in developing and developed nations alike. Floods, droughts, more intense hurricanes, heatwaves and wildfires can drive down crop yields, destroy livestock, and interfere with the transport of food. Rising carbon dioxide levels from human activity can make staple crops like rice and wheat less nutritious.Why it matters: About 800 million people worldwide lack food. Many more have deficiencies in essential nutrients. 76% of the world¿s population gets most of its daily nutrients from plants¿yet climate change is already causing droughts and flooding that can destroy staple food crops. If extra CO2 in the atmosphere makes those crops less nutritious, it will be even harder to feed the world¿s growing population. The details: In most of the places where food is grown today, crop yields are likely to be lower because of more frequent heat waves, worse air pollution, floods, and droughts. When food crops like wheat, corn, rice and soy are exposed to CO2 at levels predicted for 2050, the plants lose as much as 10% of their zinc, 5% of their iron, and 8% of their protein content.

Rose, (genus Rosa), genus of some 100 species of perennial shrubs in the rose family (Rosaceae). Roses are native primarily to the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Many roses are cultivated for their beautiful flowers, which range in colour from white through various tones of yellow and pink to dark crimson and maroon, and most have a delightful fragrance, which varies according to the variety and to climatic conditions. Most rose species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers being native to North America and a few to Europe and northwest Africa. Roses from different regions of the world hybridize readily, giving rise to types that overlap the parental forms, and making it difficult to determine basic species. Fewer than 10 species, mostly native to Asia, were involved in the crossbreeding that ultimately produced today¿s many types of garden roses.

Desertification threatens different areas of the planet, from the Aral Sea to the Amazon, across all five continents. 6,000 years ago, the Sahara desert, now the largest desert in the world, was grassland covered with vegetation. The oscillations of the Earth's axis turned this area of the planet from an orchard to a sandy area where almost nothing can grow. In that case, we speak of a process of natural desertification which is in contrast to what is happening currently: large areas of the planet are being desertified at an accelerated rate as a result of human activity and climate change. Desertification is the process by which vegetation in drylands i.e. arid and semi-arid lands, such as grasslands or shrublands, decreases and eventually disappears. The concept does not refer to the physical expansion of existing deserts, but to the various processes that threaten to turn currently non-desert ecosystems into deserts. Human activities, including deforestation and the overexploitation of aquifers, accelerate desertification. The effects of climate change, which is also driven by humans, and the destruction it causes in the form of extreme weather phenomena such as droughts.

Our soil, however, is often overlooked¿it¿s teeming with billions of microscopic organisms that comprise the most biodiverse environment on Earth. Like all living things, they¿re affected by climate change, too. There¿s a fact that frequently gets mentioned when people talk about soil: There are more microorganisms in a teaspoon of healthy soil than there are people on Earth. The matrix of living creatures that recycle plant and animal life is incredibly complex, with bacteria, protozoa, fungi, actinomycetes, nematodes and others interacting in countless, largely-unmapped ways. Climate change is likely to have severe impacts on the abundance, distribution, and seasonal timing of pests and their natural enemies, which will alter the degree of success of biological control programs. Phytophagous insect species are naturally controlled by top-down (natural enemies) and bottom-up (host plant availability and quality) mechanisms.

Medicinal plants are highly valuable to human livelihood and the medicinal plant wealth of India is well recognized as unique and globally rich. Studies on possible effects of climate change on medicinal plants are particularly significant due to their value within traditional systems of medicine and as economically useful plants. There are evidences that climate change is causing noticeable effects on life cycles and distribution of the plant species. However, it is largely unclear about climate change effects on secondary chemicals production in plants. Elsewhere this perspective has been given renewed attention recently. The construction of roads and other infrastructure in such sensitive areas is a severe problem since it harms the ecology as a whole.

The soil faces a direct impact from changes in the proportions of gases and temperature changes in the atmosphere, as it is directly related to the atmosphere. Although soil changes caused by climate change are time-consuming and occur over years, they greatly affect soil quality and agricultural crop yields. However, the plant may be affected more quickly than the soil itself. In the long term, these effects result in many losses, including: Decreased soil fertility: the soil can be affected by changes in the chemical and physical composition resulting from climate change, which leads to a decrease in its fertility and a deterioration in its quality. Deterioration of agricultural crops: Climate change can cause a decrease in crop productivity and crop quality, due to its negative effects on water availability, changes in temperature, and increased susceptibility to agricultural diseases and pests. Biodiversity loss: Many organisms live in the soil, such as bacteria, fungi, and worms, and these organisms are negatively affected by climate change, which leads to the loss of biodiversity in the soil.

Viruses could acquire thousands of new hosts as climate change causes increasing contact between different mammal species.Diseases such as Ebola virus are likely to spread further than ever before, while new pathogens could emerge with the potential to affect both animal and human populations. More than 15,000 instances of diseases crossing into new species could take place in the next 50 years as a result of climate change.As mammals shift their ranges to adjust to increasing temperatures, thousands of new species will come into contact for the first time.Even if climate change is limited to less than 2¿C, more than 300,000 pairs of mammals which have never met before will meet, leaving open the possibility that the viruses they carry will jump from animal to animal or even into humans.As the world changes, the face of disease will change too. Because climate change is shaking our ecosystems to their core, the way that we understand viruses and their ecologies will need to evolve.